中國稀土產業全解析：從開採流程到全球博弈

稀土並非「土」，而是指17種具有相似化學性質的金屬元素，包括釹、鏑、鐿、鈰等，它們在當代科技產業中具有無可取代的戰略地位。中國作為全球稀土供應鏈的主導者，不僅擁有豐富的資源儲量，更掌握關鍵冶煉與分離技術，形成從上游開採、中游冶煉到下游深加工的完整產業體系。本文將從開採流程、區域分佈、市場佔有率、應用範圍，以及美國高度依賴中國稀土的根源等層面，全面解析中國稀土產業的實力與戰略地位。

首先，在開採層面，中國的稀土資源主要集中於內蒙古的白雲鄂博（以輕稀土為主），以及江西、廣東、福建等地（盛產中重稀土）。開採方式依據礦種而異，輕稀土多採露天開採，重稀土則多採用原地浸礦法，即向礦層注入化學溶液（如硫酸銨）以溶出稀土離子，再集中收集與提煉。這種技術要求極高，同時具有較佳的環保性。

接下來是冶煉與分離環節，這也是中國稀土產業的技術壁壘所在。中國長期投入研發，掌握全球最成熟的溶劑萃取分離技術，能將稀土元素從混合礦物中高效率分離並提純。經過破碎、酸溶、萃取等多道工序後，稀土氧化物會被轉化為金屬或合金，用於進一步深加工，如製作釹鐵硼永磁體等核心材料。

在全球分布上，中國儲量雖僅佔全球約37%，但由於採礦與冶煉能力的壓倒性優勢，供應量卻佔全球六成以上。其中，輕稀土如鑭、鈰主要應用於玻璃拋光與石油裂解催化，中重稀土如鏑、鋱則是製造軍用雷達、電動馬達與永磁材料的關鍵，屬於高附加值品種。2023年，中國稀土產量達21萬噸，全球市佔率超過60%，其中永磁體產量更佔全球90%，出口量達80%，為全球產業鏈提供無可替代的支撐。

在應用面上，稀土可謂「工業維生素」，滲透所有高科技領域。以新能源為例，風力發電機與電動車（如特斯拉Model 3）都需用到釹鐵硼磁體，單輛車的稀土消耗可達1公斤以上。在軍事與航空方面，F-35戰鬥機中需用鏑與鋱以增強引擎性能與雷達靈敏度；精確制導武器中也使用稀土合金磁體。消費電子方面，智能手機的震動馬達、硬碟磁頭、攝像鏡頭對焦系統也都仰賴稀土材料。除此之外，稀土還是汽車尾氣淨化、石化催化裂解的核心材料。

儘管美國本土擁有加州芒廷帕斯等稀土資源，但為何仍然深度依賴中國？原因可歸結為三點：第一，冶煉技術落後。中國在稀土分離與提純上的技術壁壘，非短期能追趕。即便美國開採稀土礦，依然需將礦精送至中國進行提純與加工。第二，環保與成本考量。美國在開採過程中需嚴格處理放射性副產物，導致成本比中國高出三至五成。第三，供應鏈缺口過大。即便投資新建冶煉設施，也需5至10年才能真正實現產能自主。因此，即使芒廷帕斯礦已重啟，美國仍然無法擺脫對中國的高度依賴。

美國國防部在2023年明確指出，美軍所需稀土材料中，高達九成來自中國。一旦中國實施出口管制，F-35戰機的生產與交付可能中斷，連帶衝擊整個國防工業與電動車製造業。因此，稀土問題早已從產業競爭升級為地緣戰略博弈的核心議題。中國亦意識到稀土的重要戰略價值。2023年對鍺、鎵實施出口管制，引發外界對稀土是否成為下一波出口限制工具的高度關注。過去已有傳聞指出，中國曾考慮限制稀土對洛馬公司等美國軍工企業的出口，作為反制措施。面對中國的壟斷地位，美國與歐盟正加緊佈局稀土自主化建設，美國重啟礦場並計劃與澳洲合作建立冶煉基地，歐洲則發展替代技術與建構儲備機制，如日本便已囤積可供60天使用的稀土戰略庫存。

總而言之，稀土不僅是中國的資源優勢，更是其科技產業與地緣戰略中的關鍵籌碼。在中美科技對抗日趨激烈的背景下，稀土有可能成為影響全球新能源、軍工與高科技供應鏈的「勝負手」。短期內，中國在稀土供應鏈的主導地位難以動搖，而全球市場則需在安全與效率之間重新尋找平衡。未來，稀土之爭或將成為科技冷戰中最重要的一場資源戰。

A Comprehensive Analysis of China’s Rare Earth Industry: From Extraction to Global Geopolitical Competition

Rare earths are not actually “earths” but a group of 17 metallic elements with similar chemical properties, including neodymium, dysprosium, yttrium, cerium, and others. These elements hold irreplaceable strategic value in today’s technology sector. As the world’s dominant supplier, China not only possesses abundant reserves of rare earths but also controls critical refining and separation technologies, forming a complete industrial chain from upstream mining to midstream processing and downstream advanced manufacturing. This article provides an in-depth overview of China's rare earth industry, examining its extraction processes, regional distribution, market share, applications, and the underlying reasons for the United States’ heavy reliance on Chinese rare earths.

To begin with the mining process, China’s rare earth resources are primarily concentrated in Bayan Obo in Inner Mongolia, which is rich in light rare earths, and in Jiangxi, Guangdong, and Fujian, which are known for medium and heavy rare earth deposits. The extraction method depends on the type of ore. Light rare earths are typically mined via open-pit methods, while medium and heavy rare earths are often extracted using in-situ leaching, which involves injecting chemical solutions (such as ammonium sulfate) into ore layers to dissolve rare earth ions for collection and refining. This method is technically demanding but environmentally friendlier than conventional mining.

The refining and separation stage is where China’s technological edge becomes most evident. After years of R&D investment, China has mastered the world’s most advanced solvent extraction techniques, allowing for the efficient separation and purification of rare earth elements from mixed ores. Through a complex series of steps including crushing, acid leaching, and solvent extraction, rare earth oxides are transformed into metals or alloys for further processing into critical materials such as neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) permanent magnets.

Although China holds only about 37% of the world’s rare earth reserves, its overwhelming capabilities in mining and refining allow it to supply more than 60% of the global market. Light rare earths like lanthanum and cerium are mainly used in glass polishing and petroleum refining, while heavy rare earths like dysprosium and terbium are critical for military radar systems, electric motors, and high-performance magnets. In 2023, China produced 210,000 metric tons of rare earths, accounting for over 60% of global output. It also produced 90% of the world’s permanent magnets and supplied 80% of global exports, forming an indispensable backbone of global supply chains.

Rare earths are often referred to as the “vitamins of industry” due to their wide-ranging applications across high-tech sectors. In renewable energy, for example, wind turbines and electric vehicles (such as the Tesla Model 3) use NdFeB magnets, with each EV consuming over one kilogram of rare earth materials. In military and aerospace, the F-35 fighter jet requires dysprosium and terbium to enhance engine performance and radar sensitivity. Precision-guided weapons also rely on rare earth-based alloy magnets. In consumer electronics, rare earths are essential for smartphone vibration motors, hard drive read/write heads, and camera autofocus systems. Additionally, they play key roles in automobile emission control and petrochemical cracking catalysts.

Despite possessing domestic rare earth resources—such as California’s Mountain Pass mine—the United States remains heavily dependent on Chinese rare earths for several reasons. First, its refining technology lags behind. China’s technological lead in rare earth separation and purification is not easily replicated. Even when the U.S. extracts rare earth ores, they still require processing in China. Second, environmental and cost concerns hinder U.S. production. Strict regulations around radioactive by-products make American rare earth extraction 30% to 50% more expensive than China’s. Third, the supply chain gap is enormous. Even with investment in new refineries, it could take 5 to 10 years for the U.S. to achieve self-sufficiency. As a result, even after reopening the Mountain Pass mine, the U.S. remains deeply reliant on Chinese processing facilities.

The U.S. Department of Defense explicitly stated in 2023 that 90% of its rare earth materials come from China. Should China impose export restrictions, F-35 production could be disrupted, with ripple effects across the defense and electric vehicle sectors. Consequently, the rare earth issue has evolved from an industrial concern into a core matter of geopolitical strategy.

China is well aware of the strategic value of rare earths. In 2023, it implemented export controls on germanium and gallium, triggering global anxiety that rare earths could be the next target. Reports have previously suggested that China considered restricting rare earth exports to American defense contractors like Lockheed Martin as a form of countermeasure. In response, the U.S. and EU are accelerating efforts toward rare earth independence. The U.S. is reopening mines and planning refining partnerships with Australia, while Europe is developing alternative technologies and strategic reserves. Japan, for example, has stockpiled enough rare earths to last for 60 days.

In summary, rare earths are not only a resource advantage for China but also a key leverage point in its technological and geopolitical strategies. As U.S.–China tech tensions escalate, rare earths could become a decisive factor in shaping the future of global supply chains for clean energy, military hardware, and high-end manufacturing. In the short term, China’s dominance in the rare earth supply chain is unlikely to be challenged. Meanwhile, the rest of the world must grapple with the difficult trade-off between supply security and industrial efficiency. The battle over rare earths may well emerge as one of the most critical resource conflicts in the ongoing technological cold war.